Thoughts On Oppositional and Antisocial Behavior of Children and Adolescents: Part One

March 23, 1993

The wisdom of the wise keeps life on track; the foolishness of fools lands them in the ditch. Refuse good advice and watch your plans fail; take good counsel and watch them succeed. A quiet rebuke to a person of good sense does more than a whack on the head of a fool. (Proverbs)

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We all know that juvenile crime is a serious problem. But, did you know that over two million juvenile arrests are made each year for crimes ranging from school vandalism and drug abuse to robbery and forcible rape? As a society we have attempted to stem the tide of juvenile crime, but with only limited success.

As a part of my practice, I evaluate and treat adolescent offenders for the local juvenile court. I have been struck by the heterogeneity of this group. These adolescents come from varying ethnic backgrounds, socio-economic levels, and family constellations (single parent, blended family, and intact biological family). Yet, even considering this variety of backgrounds, I was convinced that they must share some critical characteristics. There must be some commonalties, some ties that bind oppositional and antisocial adolescents.

This hunch led me to the journals of psychological and sociological research. In the past, many researchers believed that childhood and adolescent antisocial behavior reflected internal forces and struggles (frustration, anger, and anxiety) that were manifested as non-compliance or aggression. Some mental health professionals believed that asocial behavior was due to poor self-esteem. Others even argued that poor self-esteem was the key catalyst that fostered delinquent behavior.

It may not be surprising that sound and rigorous research indicates that these assumptions are largely unfounded. Consequently, the psychotherapy models and intervention strategies that were built upon them have been proven to be largely ineffective.

What Leads Some Adolescents Toward Oppositional Behavior?

We all grew up with childhood friends who were always in trouble. These were the kids who got into fights, were sent to the principal’s office, and were under suspicion by adults and authority figures. You might have been one of these kids. Some of these continued with asocial behavior into a delinquent lifestyle. What is it that propels some children toward oppositional and delinquent behavior?

In many ways this is a moral question that might be stated in the following way, “Why is it that some kids choose to live in a way that is clearly wrong?” This wondering can also be phrased as a spiritual question, “What happens in the heart and mind of the adolescent who gravitates toward delinquent behavior? How does their heart grow dark and hardened?” An empirical approach can also help address this concern by asking, “What are the factors that lead to or predict adolescent antisocial behavior?” Although the moral and spiritual questions are certainly valid, conclusions are difficult to draw without referring to specific cases. I will, however, address the third question with an eye toward recommendations for dealing with the factors that predict antisocial behavior.

The Case of Kenny

In many ways, Kenny was a boy like all other boys. He was energetic, physically active, inquisitive, and bright. And like most boys Kenny sometimes challenged his parent’s authority. As a toddler Kenny learned to throw tantrums to get his way. For his parents, these episodes were both embarrassing and frustrating. Sometimes, in order to end the childish behavior, they gave-in to Kenny’s demands. As Kenny grew older, his tantrums evolved into verbal arguments and debates. These interactions were more than challenging for Kenny’s parents—they were incidents of aversive control. Kenny had learned to engage with his parents in a manner that was punishing. And the only way his parents thought they could end the “punishment” was to capitulate to his demands.

This interpersonal style of aversive control was also present in Kenny’s interactions with teachers and friends. Over time Kenny became known among the teachers as a problem child who was uncooperative and disruptive. Most of the “good” kids did not play with Kenny because he was dominating and offensive. By default, Kenny began hanging-out with other problem kids. These new friends encouraged and reinforced each other’s bad behavior. Eventually, Kenny became involved in shoplifting, vandalism, and substance abuse. As you might expect, his school attendance became sporadic and his grades dropped.

Factors That Reinforce Adolescent Antisocial Behavior

Criminologists and mental health professionals have long asked themselves, “What gives rise to and maintains delinquent behavior?” As a backdrop to this discussion, it is important to keep in mind that all behaviors are purposeful and are designed to bring about a desired effect. There is no such thing as random activity. So, as we review adolescent antisocial behavior, we need to keep in mind that their behavior is goal-directed. They are intending and hoping to gain something through their antisocial behavior.

One key behavioral style that the oppositional child/adolescent finds reinforcing is non-compliance. Non-compliance includes forms of misconduct that involve passive avoidance of parental instructions or household rules. This is the child or adolescent who fails to listen to and refuses to obey direct instructions. Non-compliance may also involve not adequately completing homework or chores.

A second behavioral strategy that is reinforcing for troubled children and adolescents is defiance. Defiance is more overt and active that non-compliance. Examples include verbal or physical resistance to parental directives (verbal refusal, temper outbursts, and physical aggression).

Both defiance and noncompliance are very effective methods for escaping or avoiding unpleasant, boring, or effortful tasks. Since all behaviors are purposeful and goal-directed we must assume that non-compliance and defiance are purposeful behaviors as well. I would suggest that children and adolescents employ non-compliance and defiance strategies because they work. They work because they aid the child in postponing or avoiding a task that they find aversive.

The challenge for parents is develop a plan for managing these non-compliant and defiant behaviors. The key to such a strategy is to consistently control the antecedents and the consequences of the child’s/adolescent’s misconduct.

A Common Path to Oppositional Childhood Behavior

In the early stages, oppositional children employ a predictable style of interacting with authority figures (e.g., parents and teachers). They engage in an ongoing process of many small events that eventually produce dramatic changes in behavior. The process is called coercion. Coercion is used to describe the way children are inadvertently taught to be negative toward other people. Through a long series of interactions they learn to be abusive; intentionally and purposefully. The goal of this coercive and abusive style is intended to aid the child/adolescent in avoiding work and responsibilities. Examples of coercive behaviors include yelling, nagging, temper tantrums, and other behaviors intended to intimidate others and to help the oppositional child/adolescent get what they want. These coercive behaviors are used against the parent or other family member (or even peers) when the child or teen is instructed to do something he/she does not like to do. The coercion is intended to terminate the ongoing negative behavior (request/command) of the parent or other authority figure.

In graphic form the coercion cycle looks like this.

A parent requests that his daughter take out the trash. If it happens to be a good day she complies and life goes on.

Request -> Compliance

But, if it is a more typical day, the task doesn’t get done (“I’m busy, I’ll get to it later.”) and the request is repeated several times.

Request -> Noncompliance

After awhile the parent becomes irritated and escalates the request, making a few threats, raising his voice, and assuming an ugly look on his face. The daughter may comply or escalate her refusal (shouting, slamming doors, and swearing). This can go on for quite some time.

Request!!! -> Noncompliance!!!

At this point one of two things is likely to happen. Either the parent will force the child/teen to comply (often through physical intimidation), or, if the parent is tired, if they just can’t deal with it anymore—they give up. The parent might even complete the task (taking out the trash). In this scenario, the non-compliance and defiance are rewarded.

The first thing parents need to do is to stop this cycle. Parents must not give up. If the parent makes a request, the child/teen either must comply or experience negative consequences. Therefore, as parents, you must think before you ask your son or daughter to do something. “Do I have the energy to follow through? Do I have the consequence planned? Should I make a smaller request so I can handle the situation more easily?”

A Developmental and Sequential Model

Researchers have discovered that oppositional and antisocial behavior follows a predictable and sequential pattern. Three key factors contribute to the establishment of problematic childhood and adolescent behavior.

1. Family and Parental Factors

Maladaptive parenting is a key predictor of childhood problems. The interactional patterns in such families serve to reinforce children for coercive and antisocial behavior. Weak and inconsistent discipline fosters non-compliance. The parent may scold, bluster, and nag—but seldom follow through. The child continues to use coercive behaviors as a substitute social skill. They learn to control family members via coercive behaviors. The parents may also employ coercive methods in return. For instance, during infrequent intervals the parents may explode and may even strike out physically. As the child/adolescent becomes more skilled with the use of coercive behaviors he becomes more difficult to discipline. The reciprocal relationship between inept discipline and poor monitoring on the parent’s part and, coercive behavior on the child’s part, has been established.

2. Academic Failure

This coercive style is then generalized from home to the classroom. The pattern of non-compliance begins to show itself by poor academic performance. This decline often includes poor attendance, reduced time on-task, and problems with completion of homework. The child’s oppositional style interferes with the general learning process and leads to rejection by the conventional peer group. The “good” kids in class move away from the oppositional student because he is interpersonally difficult and generates conflict. Following rejection by the conventional peer group the oppositional student begins to affiliate with other students who are also oppositional.

3. Affiliation with Deviant Peer Group

Due to inconsistent discipline, inadequate monitoring, and declining school performance, the oppositional child/teenager begins to identify with a deviant peer group. The antisocial behavior and peer rejection serve as critical preludes for attraction to and membership in the deviant peer group. The deviant peer group provides the oppositional adolescent with attitudes, motivations, and rationalizations to support their antisocial behaviors. In addition, the deviant peer group provides opportunities to engage in specific delinquent acts. This affiliation with oppositional teenagers provides considerable positive reinforcement for deviant behavior—while punishing socially conforming acts. The research indicates that the sharpest increase in peer antisocial behavior occurs during the middle school years. This is likely due to relative unsupervised contact with peers (being in places that lack adult supervision). Such situations make children more susceptible to pressure from peers to engage in problematic behavior.

The Antisocial/Oppositional Ladder

As described above, the development of an oppositional attitude and its accompanying behaviors is a gradual process. This progression is often associated with academic and peer problems. The climb from oppositional behavior to more serious problems includes a series of steps or stages. The longer a child/adolescent remains on the ladder—the greater the risk of more extreme forms of deviant behavior.

Step 1

-ineffective discipline

-not backing-up threats

-being inconsistent

-using extreme punishments

-poor/inconsistent modeling

Step 2

-whining

-fighting

-noncompliance

Step 3

-academic failure

-defiant behavior (home, school)

-truancy

-difficult to deal with in school

 

Step 4

-rejected by conventional peer group

-aggressive behavior causes peer rejection

-poor social skills

-not responding well to provocation

Step 5

-accepted by deviant peer group

-trained in oppositional behavior and substance abuse by peer group

-antisocial behavior is reinforced

Step 6

-participating in a variety of delinquent acts

-high rate of substance abuse

Implications for Parents of Young Children

In the majority of cases, oppositional children do not outgrow their problems on their own. Consequently, parents cannot ignore these problems. Oppositional and antisocial behavior must be addressed as early as possible—on the first rungs of the ladder.

Parents who are struggling with oppositional children must improve the effectiveness of their day-to-day parenting. Begin with encouraging and rewarding compliance, cooperation, and positive behavior. There is also the need to closely monitor and track the behavior of the difficult child. This involves making sure they complete their homework, chores, and other responsibilities. There should be no reward for non-compliance or defiance. Use effective, reasonable, and consistent consequences for undesired behavior. If your efforts in these areas do not prove fruitful, parental education and support should be pursued.

When academic difficulties arise move quickly to address these issues. Work closely with your child’s teacher. Support their efforts to effectively manage and shape your child’s classroom behavior.

Implications for Parents of Adolescents

If unwanted behaviors are tolerated and encouraged (through reinforcement or avoidance of consequences) they become more entrenched and more resistant to change. This is certainly the case with the oppositional adolescent. If parents want to see a significant change in behavior they will need to employ the principles recommended above. Admittedly, this is a challenging and sometimes daunting task. Some parents do not have the willingness or fortitude to engage in such a long-term strategy for change. In such cases, the adolescent will learn the lessons of responsibility and prosocial behavior under the tutelage of other adults, employers, or possibly the judicial system.

Part Two

In part two of this series I will focus upon strategies to change and manage oppositional and defiant behavior in children. Some of the topics will include anatomy of an argument, principles of behavioral management, effective positive reinforcement and consequences, negotiable and non-negotiable issues, and maintaining clear communication.

Resources

Defiant Teens: A Clinician’s Manual for Assessment and Family Intervention.

Barkley, Edwards, and Robin (Guilford Press). 1999.